بخش اول
خلاصهٔ آموزشی یونیت
Reading + Vocabulary + Charts/Tables + Academic Usage
English Termواژه یا عبارت اصلی
Meaningمعنی و مفهوم فارسی
Usage / Patternساختار و کاربرد مهم
Exam Trapدام معنایی یا دستوری
۱) Unit map — نقشهٔ کلی یونیت
Reading 1Life expectancy, mortality, nutrition, clean water, public health, medicine.
Reading 2Immunization, vaccine coverage, history, immune memory, safety and cost-effectiveness.
Reading SkillInterpreting charts, graphs, tables, and a pie chart.
این یونیت نشان میدهد کاهش مرگومیر فقط نتیجهٔ «درمان پزشکی» نیست. متن اول سه مرحلهٔ تاریخی را از better nutrition تا public health و سپس big medicine دنبال میکند؛ متن دوم نقش واکسیناسیون را در پیشگیری، ایمنی و کاهش مرگومیر توضیح میدهد.
۲) Target academic vocabulary — واژگان اصلی
aspectجنبه / بُعدan aspect of sthیکی از بخشها یا ویژگیهای یک موضوع
assureاطمینان دادنassure sb that ...با ensure/insure یکی نیست.
compensateجبران کردنcompensate for sthcompensation = noun
definiteقطعی / مشخصa definite difference · definitelydefiniteness = noun
empiricalتجربی؛ مبتنی بر مشاهده/آزمایشempirical evidenceopposite: purely theoretical
hierarchyسلسلهمراتبa hierarchy of ... · hierarchical
isolateجدا کردن / منزوی کردنisolate a factor · isolated
layerلایهlayers of skin
outcomeپیامد / نتیجهhealth outcome
radicalشدید / بنیادیradical change · radicallyradical as noun can mean a person favoring major change
recoverبهبود یافتن / بازیابی کردنrecover from illnessrecovery = noun
resolveحل کردن / تصمیم قطعی گرفتنresolve a problem · resolve to doresolve/resolution = nouns
straightforwardساده و روشنa straightforward connection
approximateتقریبیapproximately 20% · an approximate figure
۳) Reading 1 — The Determinants of Mortality
Main idea: افزایش life expectancy در چند قرن اخیر از ترکیب چند عامل حاصل شده است: ابتدا افزایش food supply و nutrition، سپس public-health measures مثل clean water و sewage removal، و بعد vaccination، antibiotics و intensive medicine. تفاوتهای امروزی بین کشورها و گروههای اجتماعی نیز با income، literacy، calories، access to care و psychosocial stress مرتبطاند.
نمودار کاهش واضح مرگومیر نوزادان در جهان از ۱۹۵۰ تا ۲۰۰۵ را نشان میدهد.
نکتهٔ آموزشی: وقتی سؤال از trend میپرسد، ابتدا direction را بگو: infant mortality consistently declines.
| Historical phase | Main change | Effect |
|---|---|---|
| Mid-18th → mid-19th century | Improved agriculture → more food + better nutrition + economic growth | First major mortality reductions |
| End-19th → early 20th century | Public health, personal hygiene, clean water, sewage/waste removal | Sharp fall in water- and food-borne disease |
| 1930s → present | Vaccination, antibiotics, expensive/intensive treatment | Era of “big medicine” |
| Mortality measure | Total reduction 1900–1936 | Share attributed to clean water |
|---|---|---|
| Typhoid mortality | 96% | 96% |
| Total mortality | 30% | 43% |
| Infant mortality | 62% | 74% |
| Child mortality | 81% | 62% |
مقایسهٔ life expectancy در industrialized، developing و least-developed countries در سال ۲۰۰۱.
نکتهٔ آموزشی: بالاترین مقدار متعلق به industrialized countries و پایینترین مقدار متعلق به least-developed countries است.
Exam traps
- Urbanization بهخودیخود همیشه health را بهتر نمیکند؛ متن میگوید growth باید با public health همراه باشد.
- Children بیشترین کاهش mortality را داشتند، چون infectious diseases قبلاً علت بسیار مهم مرگ در سنین پایین بودند.
- Higher socioeconomic status در کشورهای توسعهیافته معمولاً با lower mortality همراه است.
- متن یک عامل isolated را مسئول همهٔ تفاوتها نمیداند؛ education، income، medical access، behavior و stress با هم مطرحاند.
۴) Reading Skill — Interpreting Charts, Graphs, and Tables
چه چیزی را از یک Figure بخوانیم؟
۱) عنوان و unit اندازهگیری؛ ۲) محور یا categoryها؛ ۳) trend کلی؛ ۴) highest/lowest؛ ۵) comparison؛ ۶) عددی که مستقیماً از figure پشتیبانی میشود.
| Figure | Topic | Key reading |
|---|---|---|
| Figure 1 | World infant mortality rates | steady decline over time |
| Figure 2 | Effect of filtration/chlorination | clean water explains a large share of mortality reduction |
| Figure 3 | Life expectancy at birth | industrialized > developing > least-developed |
۵) Word forms — approximate, definite, isolate, radical
جدول word familyهای approximation، definite و isolation.
نکتهٔ آموزشی: در تمرین sentence-level، نقش دستوری را از جای خالی تشخیص بده: adjective قبل noun، adverb برای modify کردن verb/adjective، noun بعد article/preposition.
| Family | Forms | Useful pattern |
|---|---|---|
| approximate | approximation · approximate · approximately | approximately 20% / an approximate figure |
| definite | definiteness · definite · definitely | a definite drop / definitely important |
| isolate | isolation · isolate · isolated | isolate a factor / an isolated factor |
| radical | radical · radically | radical change / changed radically |
۶) Reading 2 — Immunization against Diseases of Public Health Importance
Main idea: واکسنها با ایجاد immunity پیش از بیماری، suffering، disability و death را کم میکنند. برنامههای جهانی smallpox را eradicated کردهاند، polio را تا حد زیادی کاهش دادهاند و measles deaths را پایین آوردهاند. واکسنها همچنین pressure روی health-care systems را کم میکنند و از نظر هزینه بسیار مؤثرند.
| Section | Core point |
|---|---|
| Benefits | Prevention is preferable to treating disease after illness begins |
| Coverage | DTP3 coverage rose from 20% in 1980 to 82% in 2009, but millions remained unreached |
| New vaccines | Meningitis, rotavirus and pneumococcal disease vaccines have reduced incidence where introduced |
| History | Variolation → Jenner → Pasteur → modern vaccines |
| How vaccines work | Antigen exposure → B-lymphocytes → antibodies → immune memory |
| Safety | No vaccine is 100% effective, but serious complications are rare |
| Cost-effectiveness | Target group is clear; limited contact is needed; lifestyle change is not required |
| Action plan | Global Vaccine Action Plan aims to expand development and delivery |
Table 1 compares deaths under five and over five for major vaccine-preventable diseases in 2002.
نکتهٔ آموزشی: برای سؤالهای مقایسهای، جمع دو ستون را نیز بررسی کن؛ مثلاً measles در مجموع از hepatitis B بیشتر است.
Exam traps
- Variolation in the source began in Central Asia, not West Africa.
- Jenner’s smallpox work preceded Pasteur’s rabies vaccine.
- Millions of children were still not reached by DTP3 in 2009.
- Immune memory means a later infection can be fought much faster than a first encounter.
- Serious vaccine complications are described as rare, not frequent.
۷) How vaccines work — منطق واژگانی و مفهومی
Harmless antigen / inactive toxin←B-lymphocyte recognition←Antibody production←Immune memory←Faster later response
antigenبخشی که immune system آن را foreign تشخیص میدهد
antibodyپروتئین اختصاصی متصلشونده به antigen
immunityحالت محافظت در برابر diseaseretain immunity
eradicateریشهکن کردن کاملeradication = noun
recoverبهبود یافتن پس از بیماریrecover from ...
effectivenessمیزان مؤثر بودنno vaccine attains 100% effectiveness
۸) Pie chart — خواندن درصدها و تبدیل به تعداد
Pie chart نشان میدهد ۱.۴ میلیون مرگ زیر پنج سال در ۲۰۰۲ چگونه بین بیماریهای قابل پیشگیری با واکسن تقسیم شدهاند.
نکتهٔ آموزشی: برای تبدیل درصد به تعداد: Total × Percentage. مثال Pertussis: 1.4 million × 20% = 280,000.
| Disease/category | Share |
|---|---|
| Measles | 38% |
| Hib | 27% |
| Pertussis | 20% |
| Neonatal tetanus | 13% |
| Non-neonatal tetanus | 1% |
| Polio + diphtheria + yellow fever | 1% combined |
۹) assure, resolve, compensate — سه واژهٔ کاربردی
assureبه شخصی اطمینان دادنassure sb that ...object معمولاً شخص است.
resolveحل کردن مشکلresolve a problem
resolveتصمیم قطعی گرفتنresolve to do sth
resolveعزم و ارادهstrengthen one’s resolvenoun
resolutionتصمیم رسمی / قطعنامهpass a resolutionformal noun
compensateجبران کردنcompensate for sthcompensation = noun
۱۰) معنی واژگان مهم + مرور نهایی
| Word / phrase | Meaning |
|---|---|
| life expectancy | امید به زندگی |
| mortality | مرگومیر |
| eradicate | ریشهکن کردن |
| immunity | ایمنی |
| immunize | ایمنسازی کردن |
| urbanization | شهریشدن / ویژگیهای زندگی شهری گرفتن |
| silver lining | جنبهٔ مثبت در یک وضعیت عمدتاً بد |
| socioeconomic status | وضعیت اجتماعی-اقتصادی |
| psychosocial stress | فشار روانی-اجتماعی |
| public-health intervention | مداخلهٔ بهداشت عمومی |
| variolation | روش تاریخی ایجاد مقاومت در برابر smallpox |
| strain | سویه |
| coverage | پوشش برنامه، مانند vaccine coverage |
| cost-effective | مقرونبهصرفه از نظر نتیجه نسبت به هزینه |
| outbreak | شیوع موضعی / طغیان بیماری |
| paralysis | فلج |
| retain immunity | ایمنی را حفظ کردن |
| complication | عارضه |
| life saved | جان نجاتیافته |
Exam traps
- approximately = adverb؛ approximate = adjective/verb.
- definitely = adverb؛ definite = adjective.
- empirical evidence = شواهد تجربی، نه صرفاً theoretical idea.
- isolated factor = عامل منفرد؛ isolate a factor = یک عامل را جدا بررسی کردن.
- outcome = end result / consequence.
- straightforward = easy to understand, simple.
بخش دوم
حل کامل تمرینهای یونیت
صورت سؤال + پاسخ؛ تمرینهای بحثی با Model Answer و محدودیتهای منبع بهصورت شفاف مشخص شدهاند.
یادداشت منبع: در فایل استخراجی، بخش عددی Table 2 مربوط به meningitis / rotavirus / pneumococcal disease بهصورت ناقص crop شده است. بنابراین برای عددی که از فایل فعلی قابل بازیابی نیست، عدد حدسی وارد نشده است.
Reading 1 — Before You Read
Open-ended؛ پاسخهای نمونه مشخص شدهاند.
۱
Question
Who is the oldest person that you know? How is this person’s health?
Answer
Model answer: The oldest person I know is in their eighties. Their general health is fairly good, although they need regular medical checkups.
۲
Question
Rank the factors that you think affect life expectancy: nutrition, health, education, income, occupation, family history, medical care, geographic location, lifestyle, other.
Answer
Model ranking: 1 lifestyle · 2 nutrition · 3 medical care · 4 education · 5 income · 6 family history · 7 geographic location · 8 occupation · 9 general health status. This is subjective.
۳
Question
If you had lived in a different time in history, do you think you would have reached your current age? Why?
Answer
Model answer: Probably, but the risk would have been higher because infectious disease, unsafe water, poor sanitation, and limited medical care caused far more deaths in the past.
B
Question
Preview the graphs and charts. Predict what Reading 1 will be about.
Answer
Model answer: It will discuss changes in mortality and life expectancy and the roles of clean water, public health, nutrition, and medicine.
Reading 1 — Reading Comprehension
Answer from Reading 1.
۱
Question
What has happened to life expectancy in the past 30 years?
Answer
It has increased.
۲
Question
Which age group was affected the most? Why?
Answer
Children. Mortality fell especially sharply among children because deaths from infectious diseases—once a major cause of childhood death—were nearly eradicated in many places.
۳
Question
What major changes occurred from the mid-18th to mid-19th century?
Answer
Improved agricultural techniques increased food supply, nutrition, and economic growth; emerging public-health measures also contributed.
۴
Question
What major changes occurred from the end of the 19th to the early 20th century?
Answer
Public health became more important: health advice, clean water, sewage/waste removal, and better hygiene sharply reduced water- and food-borne disease.
۵
Question
What major changes occurred from the mid-20th century to now?
Answer
The era of big medicine: vaccination, antibiotics, and increasingly intensive and expensive medical treatments and procedures.
۶
Question
Which listed factors positively affect life expectancy?
Answer
Directly supported by the reading: better nutrition, intensive medical treatment, antibiotics, and clean water. Greater access to medical care is also presented as beneficial.
۷
Question
What does the article predict for the future of health outcomes?
Answer
New knowledge and treatments may increase health inequality in the short term because some groups receive them first, but eventually the benefits should spread more widely.
Reading Skill — Charts A
Match each figure with its topic.
۱
Question
Match Figure 1 with its topic.
Answer
c — world infant mortality rates
۲
Question
Match Figure 2 with its topic.
Answer
a — effects of water purification
۳
Question
Match Figure 3 with its topic.
Answer
b — life expectancy at birth
Reading Skill — Charts B
Discuss the figures. Model answers are supplied for open-ended parts.
۱
Question
Figure 1: What general trend can you see? What do you expect in the future?
Answer
Infant mortality falls steadily from about 160 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1950 to roughly 70 by 2005. If the trend continues, the rate should continue to decline.
۲
Question
Figure 2: What percentage of the reduction in infant mortality is attributed to clean water? What conclusion can you draw?
Answer
74% of the infant-mortality reduction is attributed to clean water. Clean water and sanitation were major contributors to mortality decline.
۳
Question
Figure 3: Which region has the lowest and highest life expectancy?
Answer
Lowest: least-developed countries (about 50 years). Highest: industrialized countries (a little over 70 years).
۴
Question
Figure 3: What is interesting about the comparison?
Answer
The gap between industrialized and least-developed countries is very large—roughly two decades in the chart.
۵
Question
Figure 3: Based on this chart, how long can you expect to live? Do you agree?
Answer
Model answer: The answer depends on the region. The chart predicts roughly the value for the region where a person lives; individual life expectancy can differ because of health, lifestyle, income, and other factors.
Vocabulary — Target words A
Match the target words with their definitions.
۱
Question
radical
Answer
c — very great, extreme
۲
Question
aspect
Answer
g — a distinct feature or element
۳
Question
approximately
Answer
e — not quite exact or correct
۴
Question
outcome
Answer
a — an end result; consequence
۵
Question
straightforward
Answer
b — easy to understand, simple
۶
Question
empirical
Answer
h — based on experiments or practical experience, not ideas
۷
Question
definite
Answer
d — certain, without doubt
۸
Question
isolated
Answer
f — solitary; alone
Vocabulary — radical
Complete each sentence with the correct form of radical.
۱
Question
There were _____ changes in life expectancy with the introduction of clean water.
Answer
radical
۲
Question
The life expectancy of infants changed _____ with the use of vaccinations.
Answer
radically
۳
Question
In the early days of vaccination, some doctors were considered _____ for supporting mass immunization.
Answer
radicals
۴
Question
The aspect of public health that has most _____ affected people’s lives is clean water.
Answer
radically
۵
Question
The spread of HIV/AIDS has made a _____ difference in public health policy around the world.
Answer
radical
Vocabulary — aspect
Open-ended; model answers.
۱
Question
What aspects should you consider before deciding which college to attend?
Answer
Model answer: tuition, academic quality, location, student life, financial aid, and career opportunities.
۲
Question
What aspects should you consider before deciding on a career path?
Answer
Model answer: interests, abilities, income, training time, job stability, and work-life balance.
۳
Question
What aspects should you consider before choosing a movie to watch with a friend?
Answer
Model answer: genre, length, reviews, language, rating, and both people’s preferences.
۴
Question
What aspects should you consider before choosing a movie to watch with your mother?
Answer
Model answer: genre, content, language, age appropriateness, and shared interests.
۵
Question
What aspects should you consider before making vacation plans?
Answer
Model answer: cost, weather, travel time, safety, accommodation, and activities.
۶
Question
What aspects should you consider before renting an apartment?
Answer
Model answer: rent, location, size, condition, transportation, lease terms, and safety.
Vocabulary — straightforward
Discuss whether each situation is straightforward.
۱
Question
Is buying a used car straightforward?
Answer
Model answer: No. Price is straightforward to compare, but mechanical condition, accident history, and long-term reliability make the whole decision complex.
۲
Question
Is communicating with your boss straightforward?
Answer
Model answer: Not always. A simple factual message may be straightforward, but disagreement or negotiation may be sensitive.
۳
Question
Is going to the doctor straightforward?
Answer
Model answer: Making the appointment may be straightforward; diagnosis and treatment may not be.
۴
Question
Is picking up a package straightforward?
Answer
Model answer: Usually yes, if identification and pickup instructions are clear.
۵
Question
Is doing homework straightforward?
Answer
Model answer: It depends on the assignment. Routine exercises may be straightforward, but research or problem solving may be complex.
۶
Question
Is trading music with a friend straightforward?
Answer
Model answer: Technically it may be simple, but copyright and file-format issues can make it less straightforward.
Vocabulary — Sentence Level E
Rewrite each sentence using the indicated target word.
۱
Question
Restate the urban mortality sentence using isolated and definite.
Answer
Early in the 20th century, high mortality rates were somewhat isolated in urban areas, but by the mid-1900s there was a definite drop and people were living much longer in developed nations.
۲
Question
Restate the clean-water sentence using approximately or approximate.
Answer
The introduction of plentiful clean water in major cities accounted for approximately half of the 30% decline in urban death rates during the early 1900s.
۳
Question
Restate the sentence using definitely.
Answer
Clean water was definitely one of the most significant causes of rapid health improvements at the beginning of the 20th century.
۴
Question
Restate the sentence using isolate or isolated.
Answer
Researchers began to isolate the role of clean water after they found that deaths dropped sharply in cities that filtered their drinking water.
Vocabulary — approximate F
Rewrite the sentence two ways.
۱
Question
Rewrite using approximate (adjective).
Answer
Clean water was responsible for an approximate three-quarter reduction in deaths and an approximate two-thirds reduction in child mortality during the first 40 years of the 20th century.
۲
Question
Rewrite using approximately (adverb).
Answer
Clean water was responsible for cutting approximately three-quarters of deaths and approximately two-thirds of child mortality during the first 40 years of the 20th century.
Vocabulary — hierarchy G
Rank each group. These are model answers, not objective keys.
۱
Question
Rank the school hierarchy.
Answer
Model answer: 1 principal/director · 2 teacher · 3 older students · 4 my class · 5 new students.
۲
Question
Rank the health-center hierarchy.
Answer
Model answer: 1 doctor · 2 nurse · 3 technicians · 4 clerks · 5 patient. This is only a model and depends on what “importance” means.
۳
Question
Rank the family hierarchy.
Answer
Model answer: There is no universal correct hierarchy. One possible model is 1 grandparents · 2 mother · 3 father · 4 me · 5 siblings; families organize authority differently.
Reading 2 — Before You Read
Open-ended; model answers.
۱
Question
What are some common childhood diseases? Did you have any of them?
Answer
Model answer: Measles, mumps, chickenpox, influenza, and other infections are common examples. Personal history varies.
۲
Question
Do you know which vaccines you received as a child? How were they delivered?
Answer
Model answer: This depends on the person. The unit discusses vaccines given by injection and historically by oral or skin-based methods.
۳
Question
Would you volunteer to test a vaccine claimed to protect against all major diseases? Why?
Answer
Model answer: Only if the study had strong ethical oversight, clear safety data, informed consent, and careful medical monitoring.
۴
Question
Preview the tables. What will Reading 2 discuss?
Answer
Model answer: It will discuss the benefits, history, effectiveness, safety, coverage, and cost-effectiveness of immunization.
Reading 2 — Reading Comprehension A
Mark T/F and correct false statements.
۱
Question
Vaccines protect against suffering, disability, and death.
Answer
T
۲
Question
Smallpox has been eradicated through immunization.
Answer
T
۳
Question
Variolation first began in West Africa.
Answer
F — the source says it began in Central Asia in the 10th or 11th century.
۴
Question
The first vaccine was developed to protect humans against rabies.
Answer
F — Jenner’s smallpox work came earlier; Pasteur developed the first vaccine against rabies in 1885.
۵
Question
There is no problem reaching all children worldwide with immunizations.
Answer
F — millions of children were not reached by DTP3 in 2009.
۶
Question
Once exposed to a bacterium or virus, immune systems remember it and can fight a later infection more quickly.
Answer
T
۷
Question
Side effects and serious vaccine complications occur frequently.
Answer
F — side effects are generally minor and serious complications are rare.
۸
Question
Immunization is extremely expensive and not very cost effective.
Answer
F — the reading describes immunization as one of the most cost-effective health investments.
Reading 2 — Reading Comprehension B
Use the tables. Where the extracted source does not preserve an exact number, that limitation is stated rather than guessed.
۱
Question
How many deaths were caused by polio in 2002?
Answer
1,000 deaths.
۲
Question
Which disease caused the same number of deaths in people under five and over five?
Answer
Yellow fever — 15,000 under five and 15,000 over five.
۳
Question
Which disease caused the most total deaths in Table 1?
Answer
Measles — 540,000 under five + 70,000 over five = 610,000 total.
۴
Question
Which disease killed more people over five years old than small children?
Answer
Hepatitis B — the table shows 600,000 deaths over five and no under-five figure.
۵
Question
How many deaths from meningitis in 2002 could have been prevented if there was a vaccine?
Answer
The exact number cannot be recovered reliably from the supplied extracted file because the numeric body of Table 2 is cropped out of the preserved image.
۶
Question
The vaccine for rotavirus will have the most effect on people who are _____.
Answer
Under five / young children. The source text identifies these new vaccines as preventing diseases that killed millions of children; the exact Table 2 age split is not fully preserved in the extracted image.
Review a Skill — Main Ideas vs Supporting Details
Outline the article by section.
۱
Question
Create an outline: The Benefits of Immunization.
Answer
Main idea: Immunization prevents disease instead of treating it after illness begins. Details: prevents 2–3 million childhood deaths yearly, reduces infection, eases pressure on health systems, saves resources, and has eradicated smallpox / sharply reduced polio and measles.
۲
Question
Create an outline: Global Immunization Coverage.
Answer
Main idea: Coverage has risen greatly but remains incomplete. Details: DTP3 rose from 20% in 1980 to 82% in 2009; millions remained unreached, especially in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
۳
Question
Create an outline: New Vaccines.
Answer
Main idea: New vaccines have reduced meningitis, rotavirus, and pneumococcal disease where introduced.
۴
Question
Create an outline: History.
Answer
Main idea: Immunization developed from variolation to systematic vaccination. Details: Central Asian variolation; Jenner smallpox; Pasteur rabies; later diphtheria, tetanus, TB, polio, measles and mumps vaccines.
۵
Question
Create an outline: How Vaccines Work.
Answer
Main idea: Vaccines expose the immune system to harmless antigen/toxin forms so antibodies and long-term immune memory develop.
۶
Question
Create an outline: Effectiveness and Safety.
Answer
Main idea: Routine vaccines are highly effective and generally safe, though not 100% effective. Serious complications are rare.
۷
Question
Create an outline: Cost-effectiveness.
Answer
Main idea: Immunization produces major health benefits at relatively low cost and can save treatment and productivity losses.
۸
Question
Create an outline: The Decade of Vaccines / Action Plan.
Answer
Main idea: Global efforts continue to develop vaccines and deliver them to the poorest countries to prevent millions of deaths.
Reading Skill — Pie Chart A
Answer from the pie chart.
۱
Question
What percentage of children who died from preventable diseases died from Hib?
Answer
27%.
۲
Question
What was the most common preventable disease that killed children?
Answer
Measles — 38%.
۳
Question
How many actual deaths were caused by Pertussis?
Answer
280,000 deaths (20% of 1.4 million).
Reading Skill — Chart/Graph B
Create a visual from the paragraph. A model table is provided.
B
Question
Create a chart/table for the West Africa polio outbreak in 2008 and 2009.
Answer
Model table:
Nigeria: 798 → 388
Côte d’Ivoire: 1 → 26
Benin: 6 → 20
Mauritania: 0 → 13
Sierra Leone: 0 → 11
Liberia: 0 → 11
Cameroon: 0 → 3.
Main pattern: Nigeria declined sharply, but the outbreak spread to more countries in 2009.
Vocabulary — Smallpox A
Complete the sentences with the target vocabulary.
۱
Question
infected through the _____ of skin
Answer
layers
۲
Question
causing _____ 20% of all deaths in London
Answer
approximately
۳
Question
dairymaids, _____ from other people in the countryside
Answer
isolated
۴
Question
After the dairymaids _____ from cowpox ...
Answer
recovered
۵
Question
Jenner _____ to find out why.
Answer
resolved
۶
Question
The _____ was that the boy ... was immune to smallpox.
Answer
outcome
۷
Question
These laws _____ people that vaccination was safe.
Answer
assured
۸
Question
The last _____ case of smallpox in the United States was reported in 1949.
Answer
definite
۹
Question
the once _____ idea of vaccines had been successful ...
Answer
radical
Vocabulary — assure B
Open-ended; model answers.
۱
Question
What might a teenager want to assure a parent of?
Answer
Model answer: The teenager might assure the parent that they will be home by the agreed time.
۲
Question
What might a student want to assure a teacher of?
Answer
Model answer: The student might assure the teacher that the assignment is original and will be submitted on time.
۳
Question
What might one friend want to assure another friend of?
Answer
Model answer: A friend might assure another that a private conversation will remain confidential.
۴
Question
What might a husband want to assure a wife of?
Answer
Model answer: He might assure her that he will handle an agreed responsibility.
۵
Question
What might an employer want to assure an employee of?
Answer
Model answer: The employer might assure the employee that the workplace policy will be applied fairly.
Vocabulary — resolve C
Restate each idea using a form of resolve.
۱
Question
Restate: By preventing disease, immunization reduces treatment/hospitalization costs.
Answer
If countries resolve to prevent disease through immunization, less money will be used on medical treatment or hospitalization.
۲
Question
Restate: Immunization helps governments avoid the expense of major outbreaks and productivity loss.
Answer
Governments can resolve many of the financial problems caused by major outbreaks by maintaining effective immunization programs.
۳
Question
Restate: Immunization increases productivity because parents can work instead of caring for sick children.
Answer
By resolving to immunize children, governments can reduce childhood illness and the productivity losses caused when parents must stay home.
۴
Question
Restate: It costs just $17 to immunize a child with six core vaccines.
Answer
Governments can make a resolution to provide the six core vaccines because the cost is only about $17 per child.
۵
Question
Restate: Most immunizations cost less than $50 per healthy life year saved.
Answer
The low cost per healthy life year should strengthen policymakers’ resolve to maintain immunization programs.
Vocabulary — Section Summaries D
Write 2–3 sentences using the indicated target word. Model summaries are supplied.
۱
Question
Summarize The Benefits of Immunization using assure and resolve.
Answer
Immunization helps assure protection from preventable disease and avoids millions of childhood deaths. Public-health systems can resolve many treatment and cost problems by preventing infection before illness begins.
۲
Question
Summarize Global Immunization Coverage using definite.
Answer
There has been a definite increase in global vaccine coverage, although millions of children still remain unreached.
۳
Question
Summarize New Vaccines using approximate.
Answer
New vaccines target diseases that caused approximately millions of childhood deaths annually, and incidence has fallen where the vaccines have been introduced.
۴
Question
Summarize History using layers.
Answer
Early variolation placed infectious material through layers of skin; later vaccine history progressed from Jenner and Pasteur to modern vaccines.
۵
Question
Summarize How Vaccines Work using recover.
Answer
Vaccines prepare the immune system before a true infection occurs, so the body can respond faster instead of waiting days to recover control after first exposure.
۶
Question
Summarize Effectiveness and Safety using aspect.
Answer
One important aspect of routine immunization is that vaccines are highly effective and serious complications are rare.
۷
Question
Summarize Cost-effectiveness using compensate.
Answer
The life-saving value of immunization clearly compensates for its cost because it prevents disease, treatment expenses, and productivity losses.
Vocabulary — compensate E
Open-ended; model answers.
۱
Question
City-park bicycle accident: what compensation should be given?
Answer
Model answer: If the hole was a hazardous condition that the city should reasonably have repaired or marked, the city might compensate the family for medical costs and the damaged bicycle. Responsibility would depend on the circumstances.
۲
Question
You miss half a concert because you overslept. What compensation should you get?
Answer
Model answer: Probably none. The loss resulted from your own decision to nap, not from the friend or concert organizer.
۳
Question
Your family forgets your birthday during a stressful move. What compensation should you get?
Answer
Model answer: Financial compensation is unnecessary. A sincere apology and a later celebration would be a more appropriate way to compensate for the disappointment.
Self-Assessment Review F
Reassess your vocabulary knowledge.
F
Question
How has your understanding of the target vocabulary changed? Which words are you most comfortable with now?
Answer
Model answer: I can now distinguish the academic uses of aspect, empirical, outcome, hierarchy, resolve, compensate, isolate, definite, radical, and straightforward. The most comfortable words are aspect, outcome, resolve, and approximately.
Writing and Discussion Topics
Model answers are source-based; Topic 1 explicitly requires outside research for a complete response.
۱
Question
Research arguments against immunization, summarize them, and give your opinion.
Answer
Source-based model: The unit itself emphasizes that routine vaccines are highly effective, serious complications are rare, and immunization prevents suffering, disability, and death. A full review of arguments against immunization would require outside research, which is not contained in the uploaded source.
۲
Question
Clean water may have had the single greatest public-health impact. What do you predict will be the next major step or discovery?
Answer
Model answer: A plausible next step is broader access to effective preventive technologies and treatments. The unit’s own conclusion emphasizes that knowledge, science, and technology drive mortality improvement, but benefits must eventually reach everyone.
۳
Question
How can governments prepare for a future deadly disease or virus?
Answer
Model answer: Based on this unit, governments should maintain strong public-health systems, surveillance, clean water and sanitation, vaccine development and delivery capacity, health education, and international cooperation so prevention can begin quickly.